Although collection and recycling rates have increased over time, yet approximately 79% of all plastics ever made have ended up into landfills or leaked into the natural environment (Geyer et al., 2017). Furthermore, plastic litter causes severe economic losses through damage to vessels and fishing gear, negative effects on the tourism industry, and increased shoreline cleaning efforts (McIlgorm, Campbell, & Rule, 2011). Plastic pollution also negatively impacts human livelihood, as plastic waste clogs urban drainage infrastructure, increasing flood risk (Njeru, 2006 Windsor, Durance, et al., 2019). Plant species, such as mangrove forest trees and their associated fauna are reported to be negatively affected by plastic litter, as these ecosystems function as accumulation zones (Ivar do Sul et al., 2014 Martin, Almahasheer, & Duarte, 2019). Plastic litter can result in entanglement and ingestion by aquatic life such as turtles, birds, and fish, causing severe injuries and death (Gall & Thompson, 2015 Wilcox, Van Sebille, & Hardesty, 2015). Plastic pollution imposes threats on aquatic life, ecosystems, and human health (Derraik, 2002 Thompson et al., 2004 2009a 2009b Rochman et al., 2015 Conchubhair et al., 2019). As plastics are designed to last, inappropriately disposed plastic items remain in nature for a prolonged time (Andrady, 2003). Nowadays, a growing portion of plastic is used for single-use purposes (Andrady & McNeal, 2009 Geyer, Jambeck, & Law, 2017).Īs more plastic waste started to accumulate in the natural environment, it became clear that plastic pollution can become an environmental hazard. Initially, plastics were mainly used for long-lasting items. Due to its beneficial characteristics (inexpensive, durable, lightweight, abundant, and can be produced in any desired shape), the popularity of plastics drastically increased during the 20th century and its production is still on the rise. The discovery of plastics provided society with a material with almost limitless possibilities.
Rivers are known to play a crucial role in transporting land-based plastic waste to the world's oceans, but riverine ecosystems are also directly affected by plastic pollution. Plastic pollution in aquatic ecosystems is an emerging environmental risk, as it may negatively impacts ecology, endangers aquatic species, and causes economic damage.